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Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) constitutes a key issue for mobile phones. Indeed, SAR which represents the power per unit mass delivered in biological tissues must comply with existing standards. The averaged SAR required by standards can be deduced from the measurement of E-field distribution in a volume of biological phantoms, filled with a tissue equivalent liquid. Such a standard procedure is time consuming and rather incompatible with the rapidity required for developing new mobile phone models. This paper describes a new rapid SAR measurement approach based on near-field techniques. The use of a plane wave decomposition of the measured field in a plane allows the reconstruction of the electric field in the phantom from which the averaged SAR can be deduced. The combination of this approach a with probe array technology should bring real-time SAR measurements possibilities.
The performance of Bluetooth wireless technology can be enhanced by using antenna diversity. The Bluetooth diversity system using a two-branch switching method is presented in this paper. The measurement system was implemented and the performance was analyzed in terms of bit error rate and packet error rate. According to the results, the advantage of space diversity is found significant when two antennas are spaced by 1/3 wavelengths. The antenna increased throughput 3-5% compared with the single antenna case. Temporarily, the improvement was as high as 150% due to fading.
The Cellular Telecommunication and Internet Association has developed a ripple test measurement for qualifying the quiet zone of wireless pattern measurement systems for their Mobile Station Over the Air Test Plan. The data produced by this ripple test provides a very thorough characterization of the worst possible contributions to an antenna pattern measurement performed on the qualified system. However, the characterization represented by the maximum ripple significantly overestimates the ripple seen on typical pattern measurements produced by the qualified system, and greatly overestimates the actual uncertainty involved in the determination of integral quantities such as Total Radiated Power (TRP). In order to better account for the results of this test, a statistical analysis method referred to as the Surface Standard Deviation (SSD) has been developed to determine an expected uncertainty for surface integral quantities. This paper will present the background and formulation of the SSD method and show some typical results.
A novel structure for accurate measurements of antennas mounted on an infinite ground plane has been designed and built. The structure is eight feet in diameter and can be used to measure antennas as big as fourteen inches at the base at frequencies as low as 1 GHz. The structure is defined by blending a planar surface with an elliptical surface such that near the antenna under test the surface resembles a planar surface and then it slowly rolls back to minimize any diffractions due to discontinuities in the surface. Patterns of a few antennas mounted on the structure are presented and compared with the expected patterns of the antennas mounted on an infinite ground plane.
Preliminary investigations for cohering multiple apertures into a single distributed aperture were performed at the Georgia Tech Research Institute. Data were collected on complex targets in near realtime with two individual HP8510 Network Analyzer systems controlled by a single data acquisition computer as an interferometeric measurement. The data were analyzed and presented for high-accuracy angular resolution by examining the amplitude and phase difference between the two network analyzers. In addition, further upcoming tests on the Georgia Tech Research Institute far-field range will be outlined, showing how both measured angular resolution improvement and power-aperture gain product will be collected over a wideband frequency range.
Over the last decade there has been great interest in ultrawideband (UWB) communication systems. Ultrawideband antennas that are able to transmit or receive short pulses with no distortion are called Impulse Radiating Antennas (IRA). One of the most commonly used IRA.s consists of a parabolic reflector fed by conical transmission lines that propagate a spherical TEM wave. The reflector IRA was constructed, analyzed and measured at UCLA. A method of moments based software, Hybrid EFIE and MFIE Iterative (HEMI), is employed to simulate the antenna. The software has to be run many times for a wide frequency range. The simulation results for the current distribution on the conical coplanar feeds show that one of the arms can be used as an UWB balun and the unbalanced line can be connected to the antenna. The aperture field is studied by calculating the surface current on the reflector. These current distributions show that the aperture field is tapered from edge to center and the center part is less illuminated in comparison with the edges. This increases the side lobe level for reflector IRA. To measure the time domain characteristics of an IRA, we have to use either short pulses and a time-domain setup or many frequencies in a wide frequency band and use an inverse Fourier transformation to calculate the time-domain results. In this work, we used frequency domain measurement setup to measure the antenna characteristics. The recently constructed spherical near-field measurement chamber at UCLA is used to measure the radiation characteristics of the antenna. The far-field calculated from the near-field measured data is compared with the HEMI results. Calculated and measured results show good agreement.
Microwave Hyperthermia has been used successfully in non-invasive treatment of tumors on the surface or just below the surface of the human body. The precise focusing of beams in the near-field zone of the applicator is quite complex, and conformal antennas, owing to their flexible contour, can blend with the local body surface area. This paper details experimental studies on a K band waveguide array (18-26 Ghz), operating in different geometries: 1-dimensional linear arc array, 2- dimensional planar array or 3-dimensional spherical volumetric array. The array has N directing waveguides (2 = N = 8) and one focusing waveguide, and conformal shape can be achieved by movement of primarily the focusing element. This paper presents both linear z-axis near-field measurement, and planar x-y axis measurement. In this particular application, the primary motivation is to get a focused beam in the near-field, and to control the axial movement of the beam by the position of the focusing element of the array.
New taper chamber feed section was created for numerical analysis. To launch the undisturbed electromagnetic wave into the test zone, newly designed dual polarized aperture-matched blade mode bowtie (ABB) antenna was designed and implemented at the vertex of the feed section of the tapered chamber. For the accurate calculation, wall type absorber samples are obtained and measured. These values are included for realistic configurations. From the simulated time domain result, field distributions at the aperture of the feed sections are investigated. Determination of the usable spaces for different frequencies is discussed. Also, cross-talk levels are presented since the feed antenna designed for dual polarization.
In this paper, the electromagnetic (EM) characteristics of various antennas implanted in both the human head and the human body are analyzed for biomedical applications such as hyperthermia and biotelemetry. The implanted antennas are studied in two ways: the near- and far-field patterns of the antenna are calculated and the potential effects on the human body are observed. To ensure the correctness of the results, we apply two simulation methodologies: dyadic Green’s function (DGF) expansions and finite difference time domain (FDTD). We characterize the performances of the low profile antennas designed for biomedical applications in terms of specific absorption rate (SAR), radiation patterns, maximum available power and safety issues. These results should also provide a good basis for validating the results of experimental data.
The Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) Materials Measurement Laboratory (MML) is a state of the art facility for the characterization of the electromagnetic properties of materials at radio frequencies. The two-fold mission of the MML is to provide material characterization services to AFRL and to conduct R&D to develop or improve RF material characterization technology. The goal of the MML is to perform—or develop the ability to perform—material property measurements to the highest degree of accuracy possible with state of the art test equipment. Characterization measurements range from determination of RF reflection or transmission loss to the extraction of the dielectric permittivity and magnetic permeability of material samples. The MML has the ability to characterize material samples from below 100 MHz to above 18 GHz over material test sample temperatures ranging from – 150oC to greater than 1000oC. While maintaining capabilities using ‘standard’ material measurement techniques (circular coax and rectangular waveguide), the MML’s most highly utilized system is based on the GTRI focused arch apparatus. The MML also employs resonant cavity fixtures, open-ended coax probes and impedance meters to provide a capability to evaluate material samples of a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
The microwave slotted line is an accurate single frequency instrument for determining the dielectric properties of materials. The broadband application of materials requires accurate dielectric characterization across wide bands, which is a labor intensive procedure with a manually operated slotted line. The subject effort improves upon the manual slotted line dielectric measurement procedure by incorporating a steppermotor drive mechanism and automated measurement software with the standard slotted line carriage. A comparison of results obtained with the automated slotted line is made with those derived using a network analyzer system.
Measurement of material properties in the radio frequency (RF) regime, including microwave and millimeter-wave frequencies, is a critical issue for RF polymer research and development. RF polymers are polymer composites specifically designed for specified electrical and magnetic properties within a required frequency band of operation. In this paper, we investigate the methods required to determine the permittivity and permeability in the RF band for RF polymers.
The microwave characterisation of the electromagnetic parameters of lossy materials is an essential part of the work of the BAE SYSTEMS Advanced Technology Centre, Stealth Materials Group at Towcester (UK). The electromagnetic parameters of lossy materials change rapidly with frequency below 5GHz, therefore for stealth applications it is vitally important to be able to characterise materials at these frequencies. This paper describes a unique quasi-optical free space focused beam system for the measurement of microwave electromagnetic material parameters. The system employs two spherical reflectors which are illuminated from the side by gaussian beam forming antennas. The frequency range of 1.7GHz to 5.8GHz is covered in three bands with three pairs of corrugated feed antennas. An advantage of this system is that a parallel beam is formed between the reflectors whose beam waist diameter (or illumination area) is essentially the same across each frequency band. The measurements from the system are taken using a vector network analyser under computer control. The parallel beam enables a “Through, Reflect, Line” calibration technique to be used. After calibration the sample under test is placed in the beam (mid way between the reflectors) and the four microwave ‘S’ parameters are recorded automatically in complex form. The permittivity, permeability or lumped admittance ( if the sample is very thin
A Technique is presented that allows for broadband nondestructive material electrical parameter measurements. Electrical parameters of a large number of materials are not readily available over extremely broad bandwidths (multiple octaves as an example). This information is required for accurate modeling of microwave circuits and antenna(s). These parameters consist of complex permittivity and complex permeability that result in loss due to the types and thickness of materials to be used. A Method is required that allows for fast, accurate and low cost measurements of the materials under test. The technique of using dual coaxial probes provides a solution that can be applied to numerous materials including thin films. It takes advantage of the full frequency extent of the network analyzer. This measurement uses dual coaxial probes, as compared to the implementation of cavity resonators, coaxial lines, waveguides and free space measurements, and performs the measurement in a 2-port calibration procedure. The resultant analytical solution is a transcendental equation with complex arguments. The Coaxial probes are described and can be easily made with available components where the only limitation is the valid component frequency bandwidth. Several material examples show the expected accuracy versus frequency range of this measurement technique.
Microwave measurement of intrinsic material properties can be performed with transmission-line fixtures such as waveguides or free-space focused beams. However, analyses of measured data usually assume idealized sample geometries. In this paper, Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) calculations are used to study the systematic error from non-ideal geometries, in free-space and waveguide measurements of impedance sheets. Analytical models of these errors are developed. FDTD analysis can be used to numerically invert intrinsic material properties from measured freespace transmission coefficients. The focused beam is simulated in FDTD with a sum of weighted plane waves with a Gaussian spectral distribution. The transmission coefficient is predicted by propagating the focused beam through a material slab or sheet; and the dielectric or impedance properties are derived from the transmission coefficient. The focused beam diameter is preferably several wavelengths, which requires large sample size (>1 square meter) at low frequencies. A modified focused beam technique is described that incorporates a finite aperture in a metal groundplane to measure samples with reduced dimensions, even at low frequencies. Calculations are compared to laboratory measurements. FDTD calculations are also applied to study the effect of gaps in waveguide fixtures, since gap and edge effects in both waveguide or free-space aperture fixtures contribute to measurement error.
Electromagnetic material characterization is the process of determining the complex permittivity and permeability of a material. Rectangular waveguide measurements involving frequencies greater than several gigahertz require only a relatively small test sample. In an X-Band (8-12 GHz) waveguide, for example, sample dimensions in the crosssectional plane are only 0.9 by 0.4 inches. However, for lower-frequency applications waveguide dimensions become progressively larger. Consequently, larger quantities of materials are required leading to possible sample fabrication difficulties. Under these circumstances, a waveguide sample holder having a reduced aperture may be utilized to reduce the time and cost spent producing large precision samples. This type of holder, however, will cause a disruption in the waveguide-wall surface currents, resulting in the excitation of higher-order modes. This paper will demonstrate how these higher-order modes can be accommodated using a modal analysis technique, thus resulting in the ability to measure smaller samples mounted in large waveguides and still determine the constitutive parameters of the materials at the desired frequencies.
In a previous AMTA paper [1], we presented a firstprinciples algorithm called wavenumber migration (WM) for estimating a target’s far-field RCS and/or far-field images from extreme near-field linear (1-D) or planar (2-D) SAR measurements, such as those collected for flight-line diagnostics of aircraft signatures. However, the algorithm assumes the radar antenna has a uniform, isotropic pattern on both transmit and receive. In this paper, we describe a modification to the (1-D) linear SAR WM algorithm that compensates for nonuniform antenna pattern effects. We also introduce two variants to the algorithm that eliminate certain computational steps and lead to more efficient implementations. The effectiveness of the pattern compensation is demonstrated for all three versions of the algorithm in both the RCS and the image domains using simulated data from arrays of simple point scatterers.
The task of performing reliable RCS measurements in complex environments under near-field conditions is gaining more and more interest, mainly for a rapid assessment of RADAR performance of constructive details. This paper describes a low-cost compact measurement system fully developed by IDS, that allows fast and effective acquisition of diagnostic images under nearfield conditions and far-field RCS estimation in a nonanechoic environment. The hardware of the system is composed of a planar scanner, two horn antennas, a Vector Network Analyzer and a computer. The two axes scanner allows 2D scanning of antennas in a vertical plane. For each point of a predefined grid along the scanned area, the Analyzer performs a frequency scan. The acquisition software synchronizes scanner movements with data acquisition, transfer and storage on the computer’s HDD. The software has post-processing capabilities as well. A number of focusing algorithms permit to produce 2D and 3D diagnostic images of the target as well as 2D backprojection. It is moreover possible to reconstruct the RCS starting from near-field images. Along with system features, a summary of performances and some simple targets images are presented.
This paper will compare and evaluate the results of two imaging techniques on near-field ISAR data. The two techniques are polar reformat and back propagation. The back propagation technique is a wave number technique that accounts for wave front curvature. The techniques are evaluated on simple targets at various image distances and aperture extents. Finally a suggestion is made to when the more computationally complex back propagation technique should be used.
Monostatic backscatter measurements made in the near-field have been used to generate high resolution images of complex targets; however, the appropriate use of this data for obtaining far-field RCS values needed further examination. In this paper we comment on some of the available methods, and discuss in some more detail the concept that Fourier Transform of monostatic backscatter data collected over a planar array indeed provides samples in Fourier Space directly.