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M rejection curve was described. The steps to generate this rejection curve consist simply of (1) translating the coordinate origin of the measured pattern to a new location (2) performing a spherical modal analysis of the pattern, and (3) taking the total power in the lowest order mode as a measure of the strength of the radiation source at that location. Stepwise repetition of this process then generates the IsoFilterTM rejection curve. The basis for the process of generation was an empirical recipe for which no theoretical basis was presented. In this paper we relate the rejection curve to conventional electromagnetic theory. We begin with the general free space Green's function assuming a general distribution of current sources, and show how one may plausibly describe the IsoFilterTM rejection curve, and how it operates to reveal an arbitrary source distribution.
Making measurements on an outdoor range can be challenging for many reasons, including test article size, weather, and undesired electromagnetic effects. The challenges this paper addresses are those associated with the dense spectral environment in which measurements must often be made. Signals from external emitters must be prevented from causing interference with the measurement, and the outdoor range must not cause interference with other nearby systems. These criteria oppose each other in that if range transmit power is increased sufficiently to limit the effects of interference on the measurement, the range may cause interference to other systems. If low power is used in the range to avoid causing interference to others, the external emitter may make measurements on the range difficult to impossible. This paper demonstrates how, by using a sensitive receiver with high selectivity, one can make measurements right in the band of the interferer. By changing how the signal is processed, measurement capability is enhanced.
The cloud profiling radar (CPR) for the Earth, clouds, aerosols and radiation explorer (EarthCARE) mission has been jointly developed by JAXA and NICT in Japan. The development of CPR has required several technical challenges from the aspects of hardware designing, manufacturing and testing, because very large antenna reflector of 2.5m diameter with high surface accuracy, high pointing accuracy and high thermal stability had been required to realize the first space-borne W-band Doppler radar. In order to verify the RF design, we have just begun to perform antenna pattern measurement by using a CPR Engineering Model (EM). For this RF testing, we introduced a Near-Field Measurement (NFM) system with necessary capabilities for high accuracy measurement. This paper will present the summary of preliminary test results of the CPR EM antenna and the other technical efforts being taken for the antenna pattern measurement.
Computational Electromagnetics (CEM) Techniques have found wide use in scattering analysis of structures due to the fact that they require less cost and time than doing physical measurements. Numerical methods both in the time and frequency domain such as the Finite Integration Technique (FIT) [1], Method of Moments (MoM) [2], Multilevel Fast Multipole Method (MLFMM) [3], Transmission Line Method (TLM) [4] and Finite Element Method (FEM), have been known to provide accurate results for Bi-static as well as Mono-static Radar Cross Section (RCS) analysis in general but their practical applicability to specific types of structures is frequently misunderstood thus leading to mistrust in the results obtained. A result comparison between the different techniques is typically the best way of gaining trust in the results obtained, however this involves the general principle of result convergence which must be achieved for each individual solution technique. Using one of the standard benchmark radar targets which is the Cone-sphere [5], a comprehensive description of how to achieve result convergence for each technique will be presented and the final results will be shown to agree with published measured results [7, 8]. This target will be used in different configurations (with and without a slot) as well as coated with Radar Absorbent Material (RAM).
There are only a handful of commercially available antenna calibration laboratories in the US that are accredited to ISO-17025. Satimo has been operating an accredited laboratory in Atlanta since 2005 and an accurate and documented evaluation of measurement uncertainty has been a key element of the accreditation process. In order to develop the budgets, the parameters affecting the accuracy of the antenna measurement must be well understood. There are several references [2-9] that outline the method for preparing a measurement uncertainty budget, but few encompass the unique attributes associated with antenna measurements. Many of the papers published on the subject of the measurement uncertainty for antenna measurements address the characterization of a specific error term associated with an uncertainty budget, but few describe all of the terms contributing to the error budget nor how to practically determine their values. The intent of this paper is to outline and briefly describe the derivation of the uncertainty terms that contribute to the overall error budget for antenna measurements. Topics that will be discussed include: the uncertainty types, how to obtain or derive the error term for each uncertainty type, the distributions associated with each uncertainty type, the determination of the confidence level and coverage factor, how to combine the error terms as the references listed above are not in agreement on the method for combining the terms.
A Near-Field/Far-Field (NFFF) transformation for characterizing planar aperture antennas from plane-polar scanning data is presented. The method recasts the measurement problem as a linear operator one, and solves it as a Singular Value Optimization. The field sample positions are chosen to provide the minimum number of NF samples optimizing the singular value dymamics of the relevant operator. The available a priori information on the AUT is accommodated to limit the number of parameters needed for the characterization and the transformation is performed by a regularized Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) approach. Experimental results show the effectiveness of the technique in reducing the number of required samples.
The two most common test methods used to evaluate wireless test chambers are the Ripple Test Method standardized by CTIA - The Wireless Association and the Field Sensor Method standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). Both methods sample the magnitude of the illuminating field at fixed spatial points in the Test Zone to determine the magnitude of the ripple in the test zone. This ripple data is then statistically processed to determine the expected measurement uncertainty attributable to chamber reflections at a given frequency. The strengths and weaknesses of each of these evaluation methods are discussed in detail. Test results using both methods to evaluate a single chamber are presented. A third wireless test chamber evaluation method is also described. In this method a series of Total Radiated Power (TRP) measurements are made on an antenna with the antenna positioned at various spatial locations in the test zone. If measured with a perfect plane wave, each TRP measurement should produce the same result regardless of the spatial location of the antenna. Variations in measured TRP relate directly to measurement uncertainty caused by deviations of the incident wave from a perfect plane wave.
Both mathematical simulations and experimental results have shown that it is possible to make accurate over-the-air measurements of wireless devices at much shorter range lengths than those indicated by the far-field criteria of 2D2/.. This paper describes a small shielded anechoic chamber designed to minimize the cost and floor space requirements of over-the-air measurements while at the same time providing measurement uncertainties that are comparable to larger chambers whose design is based on the far-field criteria. The design trade-offs are presented and the construction of the chamber described. The chamber was evaluated at different wireless frequency bands using the ripple test procedure from the CTIA Test Plan for Mobile Station Over The Air Performance. Total Radiated Power measurements were also made on gain standard dipoles to determine the uncertainty in integrated measurements. These measurement results are presented.
We report on the initial phase of our study to assess the electromagnetic interference and electromagnetic compatibility measurement and calibration procedures at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. We are developing a measurement-based uncertainty analysis of calibrations and measurements in the anechoic chamber. We intend to characterize all sources of uncertainty, which include power and probe-response measurements, noise, nonlinearity, polarization e.ects, multiple re.ections in the chamber, drift, and probe-position and probe-orientation errors. We present simple and repeatable measurement procedures that can be used to determine each individual source of uncertainty, which then are combined by means of root-sum-squares to state the overall measurement or calibration uncertainty in the anechoic chamber. We report on work in progress and future plans to characterize other EMI/EMC facilities at NIST.
This paper discusses design & measurement techniques for two choke horn antennas used as reflector feeds for space applications. Firstly, highly efficient ultra wideband (UWB) choke horn antenna with high beamwidth & linear polarization will be discussed. This choke horn exhibits excellent VSWR characteristics as antenna shows an incredible ultra wide bandwidth (UWB) of at least 5GHz ranging from 7.5GHz – 12.5GHz with an incredible VSWR< 1.2 for the entire frequency range. Wide beamwidth of approximately 45 degrees have been achieved at gain of 13.5dB. Secondly, wideband dual-fed circularly polarized choke horn antenna will be discussed. In this case, 90-degree phase shifter/ power coupler is being used to feed the antenna in order to keep antenna circularly polarized making polarization independent of matching issues. Both designs meet the ruggedness, strength & reliability, durability, weight, corrosion resistance, temperature variation requirements in space environment. Design Simulation & Optimization for horn antenna has been done on Finite Element Method (FEM) based software ‘Ansoft HFSS v11’. Absolute gain measurement techniques have been employed for the measurement of antenna gain.
Traditional ISAR imagery measures a rotating target as a function of frequency and angular orientation - typically azimuth at a fixed elevation, with attitude accurately instrumented. For dynamic measurements, knowledge of angular motion (or attitude in general) may be lagging, insufficient or absent. K-space itself, combined with an image focal quality indicator, provides a unique geometry for separating the multi-dimensional problem of estimating rotational motion coefficients into individual estimations localized to separate regions of k-space. In this paper, a polynomial representation is reformulated to separate the annular width of the subtended aperture from a series of control points which effectively isolate regions of influence over k-space. Angular motion terms are estimated to tune subapertures of k-space such that overall image focal quality is maximized. These posited polynomials are inverted, and the associated RCS data are linearized via bandlimited resampling. Both blind and semi-blind (insufficiently instrumented angular motion) cases are addressed.
Many periodic structures are often built up of multiple layers to improve the electromagnetic performance such as the frequency bandwidth. Two approaches can be employed to analyze multi-layer structures: one is to formulate and analyze a multi-layer structure in its entirety; the other is to compute the generalized scattering matrix (GSM) for each layer and then obtain the total GSM of the structure by simple matrix calculations. The second approach is more flexible and efficient to practical problems where several layers may be cascaded in arbitrary sequences. This paper describes an efficient procedure to analyze multi-layer periodic structure using the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method. Based on the constant horizontal wavenumber approach, the procedure first computes the GSM of each periodic layer. The scattering parameters of the entire multi-layer structure are then calculated using the cascading formulas. The validity of this algorithm is verified through several numerical examples including frequency selective surfaces (FSS) with different periodicities and under different incident angles. The numerical results of the developed approach show good agreement with the results obtained from the direct FDTD simulation of the entire structure, while the new procedure saves the computational time and storage memory.
In this paper we explore how placing the same amount of RF absorber in different locations within a reverberation chamber can have different loading effects. This difference can have a significant impact on measurement reproducibility, both for measurements in the same chamber and measurements between chambers (i.e., round robin style testing). We begin by discussing some of the theories behind this and show some experimental results from different absorber placements in a reverberation chamber. Our experimental results will be presented in a fundamental format and in a practical sense (RMS-delay spread). We conclude with some suggestions on how to ensure that absorber is placed consistently.
Antenna miniaturization will continue to be a key issue in wireless communications, navigation, sensors, and RFIDs. For instance, each cellular tower is often populated with many antennas to cover different angular sectors and different frequency bands. Each modern notebook computer is likely embedded with multiple antennas to provide service in WWAN (824 MHz to 2170 MHz) and WLAN (2.4 GHz and 5.5 GHz), Bluetooth, etc. Also automobiles, vessels, and aircrafts will require more antennas to compete for very limited real estate. This dire situation is changing antenna designer worldwide with a goal to develop a new generation of physically small antennas that multi-bands or wideband. This paper presents several generic miniaturize antenna design examples that applies the concept of artificial transmission line concept for artificially control phase velocity and impedance. This miniaturization approach can be applied to reduce the size of both narrowband and wideband antennas using minimal amount of materials. Thus improves antenna’s efficiency, and reduces its cost and weight.
This paper discusses a measurement technique for accurately characterizing low cross polarization level of antennas, and associated sensitivity and errors. The technique involves two-antenna transmission (S21) measurement that includes an AUT and a reference antenna that has low cross polarization level. This technique needs two far-field transmission data from two different relative roll angles. The cross-polarization sensitivity is determined by SNR of cross-polarization component and cross-polarization of the reference antenna. The cross-polarization error is related to roll angle uncertainty and receiver noise.
This paper investigates the relative roles of the forward and return links in determining the operational range of passive UHF radiofrequencyidenti.cation(RFID) systems. The relativeimportanceof thelinksarediscussed to .rst-orderwith establishedfree .eld models. Then,weinvestigateboresight transmission and scattering with a dipole target in a storage room by comparing losses in the forward link against measured returnlinklosses based on measurementsdescribedby ISO 18047-6. Results across 895 to 945MHz normalized against semi-anechoicdata showeddisagreementbetween return link fading and the square of forward link fading by up to8dB within a measurement range of2m.
RF power harvesting enables controllable and simultaneous wireless power delivery to many RF devices. Devices built with this unique technology can be sealed, embedded within structures, or made mobile, thus eliminating additional service for battery. A key component of this technology is the “rectenna”, which is composed of antennas and rectifying circuitry to convert RF energy into DC power. Typically, multiple antenna elements are used to produce sufficient power for reliable device operation. This paper compares two different rectenna architectures (see Fig.1) for maximum RF-to-DC power conversion efficiency due to non-linear characteristics of the rectifying circuitry. A simple rectenna design example containing a 2x2 planar antenna array will be presented to demonstrate such RF power harvesting technology. The quantity, Rectenna Topology Indicator (RTI), is introduced for performance comparison.
Spherical near-field to far-field transformation techniques allow for the reconstruction of the complete radiation pattern of the antenna under test (AUT) from the knowledge of the tangential electric field over a spherical surface [1-2]. However, in practical spherical near field measurements there are zones on the measurement sphere where data are either not available or less reliable. When the spherical wave coefficients (SWC) are calculated from incomplete near-field data by setting to zero the unknown samples, the abrupt discontinuity in the field values at the edge of the scan area may lead to erroneously large values of the higher-order spherical harmonic coefficients. Different solutions have been proposed to circumvent this problem [3-4] and have been demonstrated effective for small truncation areas [3]. In this paper a novel approach is proposed for the reduction of the truncation error in spherical near-field measurements. The method is based on a proper filtering of the SWC in accordance with the extent of the minimum sphere enclosing the AUT. More specifically, it consists in iteratively imposing the matching of the near-field with the measured samples and performing a spectral filtering in the spherical harmonics domain, based on the knowledge of the physical extent of the AUT [5-8]. The procedure has been tested on synthetic as well as measured near-field data and has proved to be effective and stable against measurement errors. The approach has shown to be effective even for increasing truncation areas.
A unique wideband, dual-beamwidth, X-Band antenna has been developed by STAR Dynamics Corporation in support of a Ground-to-Air Radar Signature (GTARS) measurement system. The GTARS radar system provides precision dynamic RCS measurement and radar imaging capabilities for maneuvering in-flight aircraft. This specialized antenna and radar system provides the capability to track and measure dynamic radar target signatures and parameters that are not practical to measure on a static ground-based RCS measurement facility. The GTARS radar requirements posed significant challenges for the antenna design, among which are the capabilities to measure and track targets in wide and narrow fields of view (FOV) with simultaneous linear co- and cross- polarizations. Precision target tracking is required during dynamic measurements to maintain an accurate beam centered on the target during its flight. Consequently, STAR Dynamics has developed an offset reflector antenna with dual polarized five-aperture eight-port feed network that maintains the antenna beam precisely centered on the maneuvering target. The dual beamwidth functionality is achieved by two separate reflectors while each reflector provides multiple channels for simultaneous radar signature measurement and monopulse tracking using the eight-port feed array.
Hardware gating has been widely used to eliminate stray signals in the test range for single antenna. While testing the antenna on satellite, several issues should be considered to obtain accurate result. The difference come from several new conditions such as complicated electro-magnetic circumstance, desired stray signals from the satellite and varying of time delay due to antenna rolling. The width of hardware gating pulses and time delay of these two pulses are carefully set to ensure the measurement accuracy. Several methods are presented in this paper. These methods have been used in several test of antenna with satellite, which prove to be very efficient.