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The fundamental purpose of absorber treatment in an anechoic chamber is to ensure that only the direct-path signal is coupled between the range antenna(s) and the device under test. For many simple and standard geometries, this is readily accomplished with conventional processes and procedures. When the geometry and/or stray-signal requirements deviate from the norm, however, it can be very beneficial to have an easy and reliable way to locate and quantify sources of stray signals. This paper discusses a straightforward algorithm for creating images of those stray signals in a range when a planar scanner and broad-beamed probe are available in the test zone. Measured data from multiple facilities are evaluated, along with absorber-treatment improvements made based on some of the images produced.
This paper presents a time domain antenna measurement technique by using a low cost software defined radio receiver. The technique aims to resolve measurement challenges derived from antennas where the reference signal is not accessible. The phase reconstruction implemented in this work is based on calculating the Fast Fourier Transform of the time domain signal to estimate the power spectrum and the relative phase between measurement points. In order to do that a reference antenna is used to retrieve the phase, providing a full characterization in amplitude and phase of the electric field and allowing source reconstruction. The results demonstrate the potential of this technique for new antenna measurement systems and reveal some of the limitations of the technique to be optimized, like the undesired reflections due to the interactions between the probe and the reference antenna.
This communication provides an experimental assessment of an accurate near-field-far-field (NF-FF) transformation with spherical scan, properly developed to take into account a mounting in offset configuration of a quasi-planar antenna under test (AUT). Such a technique relies on the nonredundant sampling representation of electromagnetic fields and, unlike the classical NF-FF transformation, it allows the reconstruction of the far field radiated by an AUT from a minimum number of NF data, which remains practically the same both when the AUT is mounted in onset and offset configuration, since this number is related only to the surface modeling the AUT. Such a surface has been here chosen coincident with that formed by two circular bowls with the same aperture and eventually different bending radii. Experimental results assessing the validity of such a technique are reported.
The principles of near-field antenna measurements in Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates are well established and documented in the literature and in standards used on antenna ranges throughout government, industry, and academia. However the measurement methods used and the mathematics that are applied to compute the gain and radiation of the pattern of the test antenna from the near-field data assume that the antenna is operating in free space. This leaves several questions open when dealing with antennas operating over a lossy ground plane, such as the ocean. In this paper, we shall discuss a possible avenue for addressing this problem : the use of Complex Image Theory (CIT). The CIT approach allows the lossy earth to be removed and an image of each equivalent source point in the space above it to be constructed in the now empty space below it, but where the depth of that image is in general a complex number. While it might appear confusing to define a complex depth, such a depth is merely a mathematical construct that accounts for a magnitude and phase shift that occurs due to the presence of the lossy ground. The depth is computed so that the boundary condition at the surface of the original lossy ground is maintained; in this way, an equivalent problem is formulated. We propose an approach based on CIT that can be applied to the problem of a spherical nearfield antenna measurement taken over seawater. A limiting case of measurements taken over a metal ground plane shall be presented, along with thoughts about some practical concerns involved in the performance of such measurements.
In this paper, we investigate the achievable time savings in planar near-field (PNF) measurement of high gain antennas using a planar wide-mesh scanning (PWMS) approach [1-2]. The PWMS employs at least four times less measurements points than standard scanning without degrading the measurement accuracy leading to an under-sampling factor of four. Such mesh scanning can be implemented on standard planar near-field systems similar to the ESTEC, Hertz PNF scanner [3, 4]. The measurement accuracy vs time-saving for the wide-mesh approach is investigated using the numerical model of a highly-shaped Ku-band reflector antenna. This antenna is a realistic representation of what is currently flying on typical satellites with European coverage such as Eutelsat W [5]. The Near Field to Far Field transformation accuracy is investigated by comparing traditional and PWMS results using the same base data from the antenna model. A discussion on implementation on existing scanners and the relation with measurement time-savings is included. The experimental verification of the technique will be included in the conference presentation.
The performance of a compact antenna test range is evaluated by field-probing measurements of the quiet zone. The comparison between the simulated and measured data, however, is misleading due to the finite measurement accuracy and the limited nature of the numerical model. In order to allow a comparison, the uncertainty terms of the field-probing measurements and the numerical model are identified based on the National Institute of Standards and Technology 18-term uncertainty analysis technique. The individual terms are evaluated with simulations or measurements using the equivalent-stray-signal model. Bearing the differences between the model and the actual measurements in mind, the electrical field can be estimated precisely within the overlapping region of both uncertainty budgets.
In this paper, a novel algorithm for designing 3D-printed shaped inhomogeneous dielectric lens antennas is provided. The synthesis approach is based on a novel combination of Geometrical Optics (GO) and the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) method. The GO method can trace rays through inhomogeneous media and calculate the amplitude, phase, and polarization of the electric field. The algorithm is used to design an inhomogeneous lens antenna to produce an electronically scanned revolving conical beam to replace a mechanically scanned parabolic reflector antenna for spaceborne weather radar satellite antenna applications. Two breadboard model on-axis fed lens designs are presented and measured results given to validate the approach. A representative optimum off-axis design is presented which produces the revolving conically scanned beam. Imposition of a Body-of-Revolution restriction allows the optimization to be performed at a single offset feed location. The complex inhomogeneous engineered materials that results from optimization are printed using new 3D printers.
This paper presents two methods for measuring dynamic antenna patterns of phased arrays in a compensated compact range. The first method uses the turntable of the compact range to counter steer the antenna beam. The dynamic pattern is created by measuring single points of the pattern over time. This method is successfully tested, and the measurement results show the effect of phase jumps during the steering process. The second method extends the range of application to fast steering phased arrays by decoupling the antenna scan angle and the azimuth angle of the turntable.
This contribution details a procedure to collect and process necessary data to describe the antenna patterns of PAAs using a planar near-field (NF) range. It is proposed that a complete characterization methodology involves not only capturing beam-steered antenna patterns, but also measuring embedded element patterns, exhaustive testing of the excitation hardware of the antenna under test (AUT), and performing a phased array calibration technique. Moreover, to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approach, the methodology is applied onto a 2x8 microstrip patch PAA, proving its utility and effectiveness. Finally, by means of the collected data, any array pattern could be predicted by post-processing, as proven by the great agreement found between a measured pattern and its computed predicted version.
An efficient technique, which allows the correction of known positioning errors in a near-field to far-field (NF-FF) transformation with planar wide-mesh scanning (PWMS), is here developed and experimentally assessed. The corresponding NF-FF transformation from correctly positioned samples allows a remarkable reduction of the acquisition time with respect to the classical plane-rectangular one, since the NF data needed by this last are accurately recovered from a reduced number of PWMS samples through a 2-D optimal sampling interpolation expansion, attained by modeling the antenna under test with a double bowl and applying the nonredun-dant sampling representations to the voltage detected by the scanning probe. When the PWMS samples are affected by known probe positioning error, the voltage values at the sampling points, set by the representation, are unknown and can be efficiently retrieved from the inaccurately positioned ones by means of a singular value decomposition based technique.
Traditional near-field to far-field transformation algorithms based on modal expansion are unable to deal with arbitrary measurement surfaces. To approach these problems, a matrix inversion method can be used to retrieve the spherical wave expansion (SWE) of the antenna under test (AUT) fields. Modeling the antenna with a set of multiple SWEs centered at arbitrary points over its surface offers a flexible approach for the solution of field transformation problems over arbitrary surfaces. The coefficients of each SWE are obtained using an iterative inversion approach where the matrix-vector products can be replaced by multilevel operators based on recursive aggregations and interpolations of the partial SWE fields, reducing the computational complexity from í µí± ¶(í µí² í µí¿) to í µí± ¶í µí² í µí¿ í µí°¥í µí°¨í µí° í µí². The proposed algorithm is tested using synthetic data and measurements showing good scalability and reduced transformation error.
Positioning in near-field antenna measurements is crucial and often an absolute position accuracy of ?\50 is required. This can be difficult to achieve in practice, e.g. for robotic arm measurement systems and/or high frequencies. Therefore, optical measurement devices are used to precisely measure the position and orientation. The information can be used to correct the position and orientation during the measurement or in the near-field to far-field transformation. The latter has the benefit that the measurement acquisition is typically faster because no additional correction movements are needed. Different methods for correction of non-ideal measurement positions in r, ? and f have been presented in the past. However, often not only the relative position but also the orientation between the antenna under test (AUT) and the probe coordinate system is not perfect. So far, correction and investigation of the related non-ideal probe orientations has been neglected due to the assumption that the probe receiving pattern is broad. In this paper, non-ideal probe orientations will be investigated and a spherical wave expansion procedure which corrects non-ideal probe orientations and positions will be presented. This is achieved by including an arbitrary probe pointing in the probe response calculation by additional Euler rotations of the probe receiving coefficients. The introduced pointwise higher-order probe correction scheme allows an exact spherical wave expansion of the radiated AUT field. The transformation is based on solving a system of linear equations and, thus, has a higher complexity compared to Fourier-based methods. However, it will be shown that most of the calculations can be precomputed during the acquisition and that solving the linear equation system can be accelerated by using iterative techniques such as the conjugate gradient method. The applicability of the proposed method is demonstrated by measurements where an intentional misalignment is introduced. Furthermore, the method can be used to include full probe correction in the translated spherical wave expansion algorithm. In conclusion, the proposed procedure is a beneficial extension of spherical wave expansion methods and can be applied in different measurement scenarios.
Time and Direction of Arrival (TADOA) analysis of field probe data has been an accepted method for characterizing stray signals in an antenna measurement range for many years ([1], [2]). Recent uncertainty investigations at the OneRY range have shown a need for increased resolution to isolate and characterize energy in TADOA images so that resources can be carefully applied to reduce the uncertainty from these stray signals. This is accomplished by modeling the TADAO image as the solution to a Basis Pursuit (BP) l1 minimization problem. This paper outlines the model development and shows concrete examples from OneRY field probe data where BP allows for the identification of stray energy which was previously difficult to find. We also show how the BP optimization context can be using to remove contamination from the data through the inclusion of additional basis functions ([3]). I.J. Gupta, E.K. Walton, W.D. Burnside, “Time and Direction of Arrival Estimation of Stray Signals in a RCS/Antenna Range,” Proc. of 18th Annual Meeting of the Antenna Measurement Techniques Association (AMTA '96), Seattle WA, September 30-October 3, 1996, pp. 411-416. I.J. Gupta, T.D. Moore, “Time Domain Processing of Range Probe Data for Stray Signal Analysis,” Proc. of 21st Annual Meeting of the Antenna Measurement Techniques Association (AMTA '99), Monterey Bay CA, October 4-8, 1999, pp. 213-218. B.E. Fischer, I.J. LaHaie, M.H. Hawks, T. Conn, “On the use of Basis Pursuit and a Forward Operator Dictionary to Separate Specific Background Types from Target RCS Data,” Proc. of 36th Annual Meeting of the Antenna Measurement Techniques Association (AMTA '14), Tucson AZ, October 12-17, 2014, pp. 85-90.
The paper summarizes the performance of a new near-field to far-field (NF/FF) transform approach for a VHF vehicle mounted AUT test case, and compares the approach with the spherical measurement approach. The NF/FF transformation is based on the solution of an inverse problem in which the measured NF and predicted FF values are attributed to a set of equivalent electric and magnetic surface currents which lie on a convex arbitrary surface that is conformal to the antenna under test (AUT). The NF points are conformal to the AUT, reducing the number of samples and relaxing positioning requirements used in conventional spherical, NF/FF geometries. A pseudo inversion of the matrix representing the mapping of the equivalent sources into the near-field samples is obtained by using the singular value decomposition (SVD), which is used to form an approximation of the inverse of the matrix. This inverse, when multiplied by the NF measurement vector, solves for the efficiently radiating components of the current, which are used to compute the FF in a straightforward manner. Keywords—Antenna Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation, Electromagnetic Inverse Problems.
The principles of near-field antenna measurements and scanning in Cartesian and spherical coordinates are well established and documented in the literature, and in standards used on antenna ranges throughout government, industry, and academic applications. However the measurement methods used and the mathematics that are applied to compute the gain and radiation of the pattern of the test antenna from the near-field data assume typically that the antenna is operating in free space. This leaves several questions open when dealing with antennas operating over a lossy ground plane, such as the ocean damp soil, etc. In this paper, we shall discuss some of the motivation behind an examination of the physics and mathematics involved in performing a near-field antenna measurement over a seawater ground plane. Examples of past work in this are shall be discussed along with some of the challenges of performing far field antenna measurements in the presence of the air-sea interface. These discussions lead to some fundamental questions about how one defines gain in this environment and whether or not a near field approach could be beneficial. This will lead to some discussion of when and how the existing modal field expansions used in near-field measurements may need to be adjusted to account for the presence of the ground plane created by the ocean surface. An example of the limiting case of an antenna operating over a metallic ground plane will be discussed as a stepping stone to the more general problem of an antenna operating over a lossy ground plane.
We investigate all-metal 3D printing as a viable option for millimeter wave applications. 3D printing is finding applications across many areas and may be a useful technology for antenna fabrication. The ability to rapidly fabricate custom antenna geometries may also help improve cub satellite prototyping and development time. However, the quality of an antenna produced using 3D printing must be considered if this technology can be relied upon. Here we investigate a corrugated feed horn that is fabricated using the powder bead fusion process for use in the PolarCube cube satellite radiometer. AlSi10Mg alloy is laser fused to build up the feed horn, including the corrugated structure on the inner surface of the horn. The intricate corrugations, and tilted waveguide feed transition of this horn made 3D printing a compelling and interesting process to explore. We will discuss the fabrication process and present measurement data at 118.7503 GHz. Gain extrapolation and far-field pattern results obtained with the NIST robotic antenna range CROMMA are presented. Far-field pattern data were obtained from a spherical near-field scan over the front hemisphere of the feed horn. The quasi-Gaussian HE11 hybrid mode supported by this antenna results in very low side lobe levels which poses challenges for obtaining good SNR at large zenith angle during spherical near field measurements. This was addressed through using a single alignment and electrical calibration while autonomously changing between extrapolation and near-field measurements using the robotic arm in CROMMA. The consistency in parameters between extrapolation and near-field measurements allowed the extrapolation data to be used in-situ as a diagnostic. Optimal near-field scan radius was determined by observing the reflection coefficient S11 during the extrapolation measurement. The feed horn-to-probe antenna separation for which |S11| was reduced to 0.1 dB peak-to-peak was taken as the optimal near-field scan radius for the highest measurement SNR. A comparison of these measurements to theoretical predictions is presented which provides an assessment of the performance of the feed horn.
One of the sources of the measurement errors in outdoor antenna test ranges, when testing from VHF through C-Band, is the ground reflected signal between probe antenna and the antenna under test (AUT). Those errors are due to antenna(s) relatively large beam width(s) at these frequencies, especially when AUT is placed on the large platform such as an aircraft. If reflected wave is not eliminated by the use of absorbers at the reflection point or redirection by the use of diffraction fences, then the range operates as a ground reflection range (GRR), where the reflected signal creates a lobbing pattern when the direct and reflected signals are overlaying in- and out-of-phase as a function of position and frequency, causing undesirable amplitude variations at the test point. Ground reflections may be a major cause of error for GRR measurements when testing large antennas or antennas mounted on large structures which require a large displacement of the AUT during the antenna pattern collection process. A concept of using vertically positioned two-element array probe antenna (source antenna) to suppress ground-reflected signals in GRR-s is presented in this article. Suppression is achieved by pointing first null of the probes gain pattern towards the reflection point on the ground. All analytical evaluations are based on geometrical optics approach. Comparison of the proposed approach to a traditional single-element probe (source) antenna approach, demonstrates a significant improvement in measurement accuracy. Estimates and verifications of analytical evaluations are based on Computational Electromagnetics (CEM) modeling tool such as WIPL-D code. Simulations are performed in the VHF frequency band (200 MHz).
Reconfigurable antennas provide the ability to electronically change the antenna’s performance, which allows the antenna’s band of operation and gain pattern to be rapidly adapted to meet system requirements. A cylindrical, conformal reconfigurable antenna is presented which tunes over a wide band and provides full 360° azimuth coverage. The antenna maintains a realized gain (with mismatch and loss) better than a dipole from 800 MHz to 3 GHz, using the antenna’s gain to compensate for losses in the antenna. The antenna is designed and characterized with the cylinder’s bottom over a finite ground plane (no other antenna ground planes are used). The antenna is constructed using a modular approach out of a series of identical boards which act as antenna pixels. Each pixel contain four RF switches (one for each side of the board) along with contacts for control and ground wires. By fragmenting the reconfigurable antenna into individual pixel boards, one can construct elements of arbitrary size and shape with the primary physical constraint being how densely the electronics can be fabricated. By providing flexibility to scale in size, the antenna implementation can be optimized for more gain or for a smaller footprint. Two scaled versions of the same architecture have been constructed out of the same pixels to demonstrate the flexibility of the approach. In this paper we present data demonstrating more than 2 dBi gain from 1.2 GHz to 2.5 GHz band with beamwidths as narrow as 60°. Beam patterns are presented for GSM-900, GMS-1900, and WiFi frequencies. Finally, we will show the antenna element’s ability to maintain gain in a specific direction while forming a null over a series of offset angles.
The results of integrated antenna measurements are often severely distorted by reflections from the measurement environment. In order to feed passiveintegrated antennas wafer probes have to be used. Wafer probes are not only electrically large, but are also located in the immediate environment of the antenna undertest (AUT) and reflect part of the radiated signals. This causes significant distortions and erroneous results in radiation pattern, directivity, and gain measurements.Custom wafer probes have been used to reduce reflections for meaningful measurement results, but these special probes are difficult to fabricate and expensive. If the antenna is measured within an active system that generates the transmit signal, wafer probes are not required to feed the AUT, but bond wires, circuit elementsclose to the antenna, and parasitic radiation of surface waves also add distortions, which still limit the achievable accuracy of the measurements. In this paper modal filtering is used to mitigate the influence of these unwanted distortions in post-processing for both standard wafer probe and active antennameasurements. In the first part of the paper the performance of the post-processing technique is assessed for standard probe measurements at 160 GHz by comparing the post-processed results to a measurement of the same antenna using a custom made wafer probe that was designed for minimum reflections. In the second part modal filtering is used to reduce unwanted reflections for an active antenna measurement at 160 GHz. When the active circuitry that generates thetransmit frequency is integrated on the same chip as the AUT, the phase of the transmit signal is unknown. As the phase information is required for the post processing,a static external probe antenna is used as a reference to eliminate the phase drift of the measured signal. It is shown that modal filtering can be applied to integrated antenna measurements above 100 GHz and that reflections from wafer probes, bond wires, and the PCB canbe reduced significantly for passive and active antenna measurements, respectively.
Millimeter wave vehicular radar operating in the 77 GHz band for automatic emergency breaking (AEB) applications in detecting vehicles, pedestrians, and bicyclists, test data has shown that the radar cross section (RCS) of a target decreases significantly with distance at short range distances typically measured by automotive radar systems, where the reliable detection is most critical. Some attribute this reduction to a reducing illumination spot size from the antenna beam pattern. Another theory points to the spherical phase front due to measurement in the Fresnel region of the target, when the distance for the far-field zone is not met. The illumination of the target depends on the antenna patterns of the radar, whereas the Fresnel region effects depend on the target geometry and size. Due to fluctuations in measured data for RCS as a function of range in the near-field, upper and lower bounds for the target RCS versus range have been determined empirically as a method for describing the expected RCS of target. So far, the range-dependent RCS bounds used in AEB test protocols have been determined empirically. The study discussed in this paper aims to study the underlying physics that produces range-dependent RCS in near field and provide analytical model of such behavior. The resultant analytical model can then be used to objectively determine the RCS upper and lower bounds according to the radar system parameters such as antenna patterns and height. A comparison of the analytically predicted model and empirical near-field RCS as a function of range data will be presented for pedestrian, bicyclist, and vehicle targets.