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In this paper, we show how Prolate Spheroidal Wave Functions (PSWFs) can be reliably and accurately numerically computed to represent the field radiated by an oblong antenna. We show the convenience of the PSWFs representation by comparing its performance against a spherical harmonics expansion. We also point out how the PSWFs representation can be fruitfully exploited to face a Near-Field/Far-Field (NFFF) problem in a cylindrical geometry for the mentioned class of antennas.
Resistive materials are often employed in antenna or absorber design for radio frequency (RF) applications. Causal material models are needed when modeling wideband RF systems using time-domain numerical models (e.g. FDTD). To this end, the frequency-dependence, from 10’s of MHz to 10’s of GHz, of spatially patterned and un-patterned resistive-cards (R-cards) were measured using free space and specialty materials measurements fixtures. Specifically, the complex sheet-impedance of two R-card specimens were measured at VHF frequencies using either an 8.5-inch slotted rectangular-coax (R-coax) or a recently developed resistive material mapping probe (RMMP). At GHz frequencies measurements were conducted using a standard 2’ focused beam lens system. The multi-band complex-impedance data were fit using a set of causal sheet material models. Typically, the fit errors are in the 1-3% range for causal models of measured data over two-plus decades of bandwidth.
Prior literature in the subject area of far-field antenna measurements has demonstrated an extrapolation technique to isolate and correct the errors associated with nearzone proximity effects, specifically multiple reflections between the probe and the antenna under test (AUT), thus allowing measurements to be acquired at separation distances much shorter than the conventionally defined far-field criteria. A recent paper on this topic described a modern, indoor, far-field antenna measurement range specifically designed to support the traditional extrapolation technique while also incorporating high-speed RF instrumentation and advanced software control of a mobile probe tower. The automation of the traditional technique was emphasized, and the application focused primarily on X-band performance. Herein presented is an updated and more broadband approach which utilizes both amplitude and phase data to extend the implementation to frequencies in the UHF-, L-, and S-band. Optimized correction factors are generated for additional extraneous signals, most notably the effects of multi-path interference. Using the generalized three antenna measurement approach as highlighted in the original technique, measurement examples are provided for broadband antenna range horns, and the resultant far-field gain calculations are again compared to similar data extracted using traditional near-field scanning techniques.
Reconfigurable antennas are very widely useful antennas, but they require extended measurement periods to characterize the range of specified beams. Time-saving measures typically come at the cost of measurement quality. The goal of this effort was twofold: 1) to investigate ways to improve all antenna measurements, including analyzing antenna positions within range spaces, absorber configurations, and mounting structures and 2) to investigate the procedure by which reconfigurable antennas are optimized and determine efficient measurement quality and time-cost tradeoffs.
A set of Dual-Polarized Antennas with a 3:1 operating bandwidth has been developed for use in near-field ranges as the probe or range antenna and for use as a Compact Antenna Test Range (CATR) feed [1]. Key development parameters of the antenna are: a wideband impedance match to the coaxial feed line, E and H-plane 1 dB beam widths in excess of 30 degrees, -30 dB on axis cross-polarization, minimum polarization tilt and a phase center that varies over a small region near the aperture. To accomplish these design parameters, a family of range antennas has been developed and previously introduced. Two versions of the antenna have been manufactured and tested for performance. A 2-6 GHz version has been developed using traditional machining techniques and a 6-18 GHz version has been produced using additive manufacturing (3D printing) techniques [4]. These antennas provide proper illumination of the quiet zone for compact ranges used for antenna measurements as well as radar cross section (RCS) measurements. For RCS measurements, an additional requirement for time-based energy storage performance is considered. Energy storage in the feed can result in a pulse spreading or additional copies of the pulse in time, resulting in poor performances of the target characterization. This effect is called ‘ringdown’. In this paper, we focus on the RCS ringdown performance of the 6-18 GHz antenna produced using additive manufacturing. The measured performance of the antenna will be presented and discussed. Finally, the applicability of the antenna as a CATR feed for RCS measurements will be discussed.
Mm-wave 5G base-stations are capable of emitting unprecedented EIRPs, necessary to achieve its high data rates. This capability introduces the opportunity to also use this wireless resource to wirelessly power IoT devices. However, the passive recipients of such power densities would need large enough apertures to harvest appropriate power levels to operate, which would naturally limit their angular coverage. In this work, we present an unconventional solution to this problem through the implementation of a passive beamforming network—the Rotman lens—in the receiving mode, as an intermediate element between antenna arrays and rectifiers to enable the surprising combination of high gain and wide angular coverage. The fullyprinted, flexible Rotman lens, operating in the mm-wave regime, is equipped with eight antenna ports and six beam ports, selected based on a scalability study. Tested in both planar and bent configurations, the Rotman lens demonstrates a robust, ultrabroadband behavior, with minimum variations in its gain and angular coverage over more than 20 GHz of bandwidth. These structures promise to power the next generation of passive IoT devices at distances exceeding 100 m using 5G base-stations, with the transmission of the full 75 dBm EIRP allowable by the FCC in the 5G/mm-wave bands, thereby enabling the emergence of ultra-low-cost mmIDs for ubiquitous sensing for smart-city and smart-infrastructure applications.
Reconfigurable antennas are very widely useful antennas, but they require extended measurement periods to characterize the range of specified beams. Time-saving measures typically come at the cost of measurement quality. The goal of this effort was twofold: 1) to investigate ways to improve all antenna measurements, including analyzing antenna positions within range spaces, absorber configurations, and mounting structures and 2) to investigate the procedure by which reconfigurable antennas are optimized and determine efficient measurement quality and time-cost tradeoffs.
A set of Dual-Polarized Antennas with a 3:1 operating bandwidth has been developed for use in near-field ranges as the probe or range antenna and for use as a Compact Antenna Test Range (CATR) feed [1]. Key development parameters of the antenna are: a wideband impedance match to the coaxial feed line, E and H-plane 1 dB beam widths in excess of 30 degrees, -30 dB on axis cross-polarization, minimum polarization tilt and a phase center that varies over a small region near the aperture. To accomplish these design parameters, a family of range antennas has been developed and previously introduced. Two versions of the antenna have been manufactured and tested for performance. A 2-6 GHz version has been developed using traditional machining techniques and a 6-18 GHz version has been produced using additive manufacturing (3D printing) techniques [4]. These antennas provide proper illumination of the quiet zone for compact ranges used for antenna measurements as well as radar cross section (RCS) measurements. For RCS measurements, an additional requirement for time-based energy storage performance is considered. Energy storage in the feed can result in a pulse spreading or additional copies of the pulse in time, resulting in poor performances of the target characterization. This effect is called ‘ringdown’. In this paper, we focus on the RCS ringdown performance of the 6-18 GHz antenna produced using additive manufacturing. The measured performance of the antenna will be presented and discussed. Finally, the applicability of the antenna as a CATR feed for RCS measurements will be discussed.
Mm-wave 5G base-stations are capable of emitting unprecedented EIRPs, necessary to achieve its high data rates. This capability introduces the opportunity to also use this wireless resource to wirelessly power IoT devices. However, the passive recipients of such power densities would need large enough apertures to harvest appropriate power levels to operate, which would naturally limit their angular coverage. In this work, we present an unconventional solution to this problem through the implementation of a passive beamforming network—the Rotman lens—in the receiving mode, as an intermediate element between antenna arrays and rectifiers to enable the surprising combination of high gain and wide angular coverage. The fullyprinted, flexible Rotman lens, operating in the mm-wave regime, is equipped with eight antenna ports and six beam ports, selected based on a scalability study. Tested in both planar and bent configurations, the Rotman lens demonstrates a robust, ultrabroadband behavior, with minimum variations in its gain and angular coverage over more than 20 GHz of bandwidth. These structures promise to power the next generation of passive IoT devices at distances exceeding 100 m using 5G base-stations, with the transmission of the full 75 dBm EIRP allowable by the FCC in the 5G/mm-wave bands, thereby enabling the emergence of ultra-low-cost mmIDs for ubiquitous sensing for smart-city and smart-infrastructure applications.
The conventional method for comparing the performance of antenna-receiver systems is the classical G/T metric. The G/T metric is the ratio of antenna-circuitgainrelative to the thermal noise temperature evaluated at the input of the low noise amplifier; the thermal noise at the input to the LNA consists of the received sky noise, the LNA's effective input noise temperature, and post LNA noise referenced to the LNA's input. While this has been a standard for many years, it will be shown that G/T does an incomplete job of describing the performance under all conditions. The noise figure metric was developed as a characteristic describing signal-to-noise degradation to be applied to circuit based input/output topologies, and cannot easily be applied to hybrid systems such as an antenna-receiver system in which the input power is described by spatial field density levels, and the output power is stated in terms of a circuit-based voltage-current environment. This paper presents a noise figure metric which has been expanded to include systems that are a hybrid of wave and circuit characteristics such as the marriage of an antenna and receiver. It will also be shown that whereas a system's noise figure is dependent upon a chosen noise reference temperature, the intrinsic Effective Input Noise Temperature of the system is an invariant that does not change when a different reference temperature is selected. It will also be shown that, in contrast to G/T, the effective input noise temperature of an antenna/receiver system will accurately predict the system's output SNR for all values of system input SNR. It will be shown in detail, how to measure the antenna/receiver system's Effective Input Noise Temperature (TE), resulting in the following equation: TE = (TD1 - Y£ TD2 )/(Y - 1) Where: TD1 , and TD2 are measured noise power densities at the face of the antenna, TE is the Effective Input Noise Temperature of the system, and "Y" is the classical "Y factor" metric.
In this paper, a loadbox was developed to perform theconductive and radiative Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) emission and immunity testing of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Satellite Digital Audio Radio Service (SDARS). To perform these tests, the supplier must purchase and build bias-tee, lowpass filter, choke, Diplexer and coupling circuitry to develop a loadbox. This means that same product made by different suppliers have different test set-up in place and therefore variability in the testing which create uncertainties in the test results and product approval or rejection. This is not reliable and can cause large amount of money wasted or bad product pass through. In this work, we propose an integrated loadbox design that can be built in-house with low cost and provide unique solution across the board. A loadbox consisting distributed Printed Circuit Board (PCB) made diplexer was developed that is easy to fabricate with low cost high durability and reliability during EMC testing and keep all the EMC testing consistent across the board which is enabling factor for proper decision making. A dual band diplexer was realized to separate the combined signal coming from the LNA's output port to two separate GNSS and SDARS ports. At the GNSS and SDARS frequencies due to the short wavelength of the RF signals, inductors and capacitors can be implemented using different transmission lines widths and lengths in short, open, parallel and straight-line formation. Distributed diplexer was designed using ADS RF Momentum simulator tool from Keysight and fabricated on a 2-layers PCB, FR2 of thickness 0.787 mm and a copper thickness of 35 um with overall size of 5.8x3.1 cm. Simulated and measured s-parameter for all of diplexer ports are in good agreement with measured insertion loss of better than 1.9 dB, return loss of 11.4 dB and GNSS-SDARS isolation of 16.8 dB at the GNSS frequency band and measured insertion loss of better than 2.1 dB, return loss of 14.1 dB and SDARS-GNSS isolation of 10.9 dB at the SDARS frequency band.
Three-antenna methods [1] are fundamental to modernantenna metrology. They enable the simultaneous determination of the on-axis polarizations and gains of three unknown antennas. For example, on-axis characterization of a probe antenna is necessary for the accurate far-field measurement of test antenna transmitting and receiving functions. Recently after renovation of antenna ranges, NIST has beeninvolved in an internal program to re-certify its polarizationcharacterization services. While reviewing the theory [2], werealized that a small modification to the standard algorithmcould improve the accuracy of the polarization determinationin many cases. Three-antenna techniques measure the antennas in pairswith one antenna of each pair rotating about its axis (Figure1). The ideal form of the measured signal is very simple (6). Previous methods [3][8], take an economical approach in which a minimal number of measurements are used to extractthe polarization parameters from the model. Some allow forthe averaging of multiple determinations to improve results. We propose, on the other hand, to use the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) to isolate the exp (¤i?) behavior in the data[9], [10]. The pair-polarization ratios (8) are easily computedfrom this transform. References [9] and [10] only came tolight after our analysis was completed. Rather the drop theproject, we have decided to offer this note as a tutorial andto call attention to what appears to be an under-appreciatedapproach to polarization measurement. All of the above methods work well when the error signalis small. Otherwise, the global nature of Fourier interpolationis expected to yield advantages over any local analysis. This hypothesis is supported by the simulations discussed below. Data were simulated for a number of combinations of axialratio, tilt angle, and sense of polarization. Noise was added atvarious levels. NOTE: The abstract refers to a figure, equations, and references not included in the abstract for brevity but which are available upon request
The future of cooperative automated and connected driving lies in the fusion of multiple mobile wireless sensor and data transmission nodes, covering technologies like radar, cellular and ad-hoc communications, and alike. Current developments indicate enormous potential to increase the environmental awareness through joint communication and radar sensing. In this respect, future wireless channel models aim at including bi-static reflectivities of road users, depending on different illumination and observation angles, in the nearfield as well as in the far-field. The limitations of the measurement distances within anechoic chambers unavoidably induce nearfield effects, especially for electrically large radar objects like realistic road users, and conventional bi-static RCS calibration techniques would eventually fail. In order to model the transition from the nearfield to the far-field reflectivity of road users, this paper uses the object scaling approach, with combined measurements and electromagnetic simulations. Bi-static reflectivity measurements of selected vulnerable road users are described, from the chamber setup all the way up to data post-processing. The approach of electromagnetic object scaling is applied to such bi-static reflectivity measurements, and the results are evaluated and discussed in comparison with numerical simulations. Initial proof-of-concept measurements of differently sized metal spheres confirmed the applicability of the scaling approach under far-field conditions very convincingly. Based on this, scaled models of radar objects, namely a bicycle and a pedestrian, were 3D printed and then metallized with copper paint. Compared to corresponding electromagnetic simulations of the original bi-static reflectivity of the radar objects, the results measured for the scaled models show very promising agreement with the numerical expectation. This study contributes to the further development of future wireless channel models considering bi-static multipath components of different road users, being an indispensable prerequisite to enhance the safety in future road traffic.
To characterize the radiation characteristics of an antenna, determining the power pattern of the antenna is often sufficient. In some cases, however, both the amplitude and phase response are important. For instance, for accurate channel modeling, the antenna has to be de-embedded, requiring knowledge of the complex radiation pattern of the antenna. A vector network analyzer typically measures complex S-parameters, hence, determining the complex radiation pattern seems like a straightforward task. When measuring at higher frequencies, as the wavelength becomes shorter, antenna phase measurements are very sensitive to positioning and alignment errors. Using sophisticated measurement tools, the position and orientation of the antennas can be determined, and this information can be used to correct the measurement data. The stringent requirements on positioning and alignment at millimeter-wave frequencies, however, makes correcting the data based on physical insight, in some cases, a more practical solution. The results of a radiation pattern measurement of a WR-28 rectangular open-ended waveguide will be shown in the full paper. The magnitude of the radiation pattern is symmetric in its two principal planes, which is to be expected, but the phase of the radiation pattern is not symmetric. To explain this lack of symmetry, a two-parameter misalignment model will be presented. It will be shown that the measured phase is much more sensitive to the misalignment than the measured magnitude, explaining why the symmetry is only lacking in the measured phase. Based on the 1,708 available planar cuts, the two parameters in the misalignment model are determined with great confidence. Subsequently, the parameters are used to correct the phase of the measured radiation pattern, restoring the expected symmetry in the phase measurement.
Placing a Direction Finding (DF) array onto an existing aircraft is typically a difficult endeavor due to the limitations placed by existing antennas or structures which mandate keep-out areas, the additional infrastructure required for potentially dispersed DF antennas, and getting all of the modifications for the DF antennas flight certified. Because of these challenges, along with the basic expense of modifying an aircraft for external antennas, the ability to optimize the antenna lay down for peak DF performance is absolutely essential. This paper will describe the use of a Genetic Algorithm (GA) in the application of defining antenna locations on a platform to form an optimized broadband Direction Finding (DF) array. For this optimization study, the Correlation Interferometry Direction Finding (CIDF) algorithm, will be used to assess candidate array solutions generated by the genetic algorithm. CIDF Correlation domain statistics such as main correlation beamwidth (proportional to DF accuracy), and correlation sidelobe levels (average relates to array robustness, maximum relates to potential for wild bearings) were used to assess each candidate array over the entire frequency band of interest. This paper will show how that the use of a genetic algorithm, with an optimization function based on CIDF correlation statistics, and a fitness function adjusted in population size and mutation rate, will yield the derivation of a robust DF antenna array configuration. This paper will derive the critical optimization and fitness functions, and then use examples of a large jet aircraft, a medium size business jet, and a small Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) to demonstrate the genetic algorithm capability to solve the DF antenna placement problem. As the reader may not be familiar with the theory of interferometric direction finding, or genetic algorithms, a brief tutorial will be provided in Sections I and III respectively.
This paper presents a novel method using multiple compact antenna test range (CATR) reflectors to simulate the Radio Resource Management (RRM) measurements required for 5G devices capable of beam-forming in the millimeter wave frequency range (i.e. FR2). Four CATR reflectors are arranged on a semi-circle with the device under test (DUT) on a dual axis positioner in the center of the intersection of four planar waves in order to generate five sets of two Angles of Arrival (AoA), thereby capable of simulating multiple basestations from different directions for the 5G device to monitor and perform handovers. The reflectors create far-field conditions at the device under test (DUT) such that quiet zones of up to 20-30cm in size can be achieved. Absorber baffles are strategically placed as to reduce scattering from adjacent reflectors. In addition to RRM measurements, one reflector can be used to also perform in-band RF beam characterization[JMFL2] while additional reflectors can measure out of band emissions at the same time, thereby decreasing total measurement times by a factor of 2-3 times.
The question of how to perform a nearfield antenna measurement in the presence of the air-sea interface is one that has been raised previously by the author[1]. When discussing spherical near field measurements various approaches have been proposed for addressing this problem, that are also applicable to measurements taken over a conducting ground plane. In this paper we shall discuss some of the practical challenges involved in data collection and measurement methods when performing this type of measurement. Examples shall be taken from both spherical nearfield measurements of simple sources along with single-point at-horizon measurements to examine the challenges associated with these approaches. A notional approach for measuring realized power gain at the horizon will also be discussed.
An open-source antenna pattern measurement system comprised of software-defined radios (SDRs), standard PVC tubing, and 3-D printer hardware will measure the radiation patterns of student-built prototype antennas. The antenna pattern measurement system developed at Weber State University (WSU) was inspired by the published work of Picco and Martin [1]. Their low-cost and practical system utilized commercially-available 2.4 GHz wireless routers. Open-source firmware was loaded on the routers to access the received signal strength indicator (RSSI) data. The RSSI was recorded versus antenna-under-test orientation using National Instruments LabVIEW. The WSU antenna pattern measurement prototype utilizes wideband software-defined-radios to generate, transmit, and receive the test signal. Synchronous belts, gears, and 3-D printer parts were chosen and designed to address mechanical problems described by Picco and Martin. Position control is achieved using an Arduino microcontroller with open-source software developed for 3-D printer systems. Measured principal plane gain patterns for three antenna prototypes are compared to simulated results. Models were constructed using commercial Method-of-Moments (FEKO) for comparison. Measured Radiation pattern data was scaled to the simulated Gain values for a quarter-wave monopole over a finite ground plane, a Yagi-Uda directional antenna, and an air-backed circular microstrip patch antenna. The low-cost, open-source nature of the measurement system is ideal for undergraduate-level investigation of antenna theory and measurement. It is anticipated the SDRs will permit future research of modulation methods and encoding to improve measurements in non-anechoic environments.
Antenna placement or antenna in-situ performance analysis on large and complex platforms such as ships, airplanes, satellites, space shuttles, or cars has become even more and more important over the years. We present a systematic investigation of different antenna types for space applications in G- and S-band on an experimental aircraft. In this process, the individual antennas are measured with the help of a dual reflector compact antenna test range (CATR) under far-field conditions in various configurations. These results are validated and compared utilizing a finite element method (FEM) based solver simulation model. At first, the antennas are simulated and measured alone without any supporting or mounting structure. Subsequently, the effect of mounting structures on the overall radiation performance is added by analyzing the antennas over a large conducting ground plane, on top and the side of winglets, and on top of a cylinder body with dimensions on the order of the actual aircraft. For the detailed in-situ investigations, a second method of moments (MoM) based simulation tool is employed which works on measured sources. These measured sources are obtained from the CATR measurements of the isolated antennas. By means of a spherical wave expansion (SWE), they are transformed into a near-field source for the simulation model. These measured data based results are again compared and validated with the full FEM simulation for the complete aircraft setup and the simplified cylinder body. By this means, the expensive design and measurement of a full-scale electromagnetically equivalent mock-up of the aircraft could be saved. Furthermore, the pure simulation of the installed antenna performance often suffers from the limited availability of exact antenna design parameters. In some cases, the antenna design data remains undisclosed deliberately due to IP reasons. The presented results reveal the influence of physical structure on the radiation characteristics and demonstrate the benefits of working with measured data in simulation tools.
A signal source can introduce phase-measurement errors when its output crosses through internal frequency-band breaks. The source phaselock circuits in this band-break region sometimes report approximate phaselock before complete phaselock occurs. The result of this approximate phaselock is a minor error in the output frequency, which can lead to phase-measurement errors at the system level. The magnitude of the phase errors depends on the amount of frequency offset and the difference in electrical lengths between the measurement system's signal and phase-reference paths. If this behavior were deterministic, then the resulting phase errors might be tolerable. Unfortunately, it was found that the final settling time (measured in many hundreds of milliseconds) was not consistent, depended in part on the two specific frequencies surrounding the band break, became more confused if a second sweep encountered the band break before the first break had settled, and of course changed behavior if the frequencies were sequenced in reverse order or measured one at a time. The design approach described herein reduced to negligible the phase-measurement errors due to frequency errors in two large multioctave test systems. The approach relies on managing range transmission line lengths so that propagation time is sufficiently equal among the various signal and reference paths. Measured data are presented that show the advantage of the optimized system design.